General Information
1. General Information of the Respondents
From the total of 12 villages covered from 3 gewogs, 62.5% of the respondents were male and female respondents which constitute 37.5% of the 40 respondents (Table 1). The highest number of respondents were from Bjee gewog with 23 respondents. Respondents of Katsho Gewog consists of 27.5% (n=11).
Table 1: Respondents from each Gewog with their gender
Gender Bjee Katsho Esu Total
Male 35% 20% 7.50% 62.50%
Female 22.50% 7.50% 7.50% 37.50%
2. Yak Rearing and its Trend in Haa
Yak rearing is main income source for the people living in the highlands. The yak population in Bjee and katsho Gewogs increased to 3,227 and 1,093 in 2013 respectively. However there was slight decline (from 575 to 501) in the yak population in Esu Gewog from 2010 to 2013 (Department of Livestock, 2014). Total hh depending on yak was 13.33% and 18.77% of the total households in Bjee Gewog depend on yak rearing, which is highest among three Gewogs.. Although there was huge drop in the number of households engaged in yak farming, it is the main source of income for livelihood for 78 hh in the Dzongkhag in 2014. However there was a steep decline in household rearing yak in 2014. According to the livestock statistics (2014), total number of yak rearing households decreased to 52 in Bjee Gewog, 19 in Katsho and 5 in Esu (Figure 2). Those who started yak farming in 2013 on average had only 3 yaks per household and were tshethar yaks contributing to increase in population and hh rearing yak in 2013.
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| Figure: Trend in yak farming households in three Gewogs |
2. Factors Influencing Yak Herding
1. Labour Shortage
Yak rearing is a laborious job and requires minimum of two persons to look after a herd (Wangdi, 2012). Rural-urban migration is becoming alarming and more people drift in to urban areas in search of better living conditions. This creates labour shortage in rural areas and is a challenge faced in all parts of the country. Although 50% of the respondents had hired labour looking after their herd, 47% of the respondents reported that the labour for yak herding was not available at all (Table 2). Result also shows that 42% has the perception that labour was not easy to get in the study area.
Table : Respondents perception on availability of the labour
Availability of labor Respondents Percent
Easily available 4 10
Not very easy 17 42.5
Not available at all 19 47.5
Wages for the hired labor differed from place to place. Although national minimum wage is Nu.165, the wage for yak herding is approximately 22% higher than the national minimum wage. In katsho Gewog, the average wage for the hired labor is Nu.5,500 per month and Nu.6,500 per month in Bjee Gewog.
Labour charge in the study area, according to 35% of the respondents was very high . According to the key informants, the high labor charge was the result of shortage of labor and demand for labour. Labour shortage was further exacerbated by easy income generating activities such as business and available works as farm labours, discouraging them from working as hired yak herder. In general, 55% of the respondents from YFAH stated labour shortage as main factor for leaving the yak farming. These hh either could not get hired labour for yak herding or labour shortage due to small family size. The average family size (living as farmers) for the hh who left yak farming was two per family. Family sizes of the YFH and YFAH also differ significantly with (M= 3.6, SD= 1.04) for YFH and for YFAH (M=2.8, SD= .8) conditions; t (38) = 2.59, p = .01. Family with higher number of people staying as farmer could help them continue with their yak herding. The average size of family for the YFH was 3.67 and average family size for YFAH was 2. Such small family size could also lead to deterioration in yak farming culture of the Haaps in future.
2. Pasture land
From the 40 respondents, 45% of the respondents agree that palatable grasses has decreased over the years and 10% of the respondents said that increased number of cattle in the grazing land contributes to pastureland deterioration. Overgrazing is not caused by the yaks alone but also by blue sheep, cattle, and horses that graze over the same pastureland throughout the year (Wangchuk et al., 2009).
Table: Perception on decrease in palatable grasses in the Tsamdros
Respondents Percent
Palatable grasses decreased Yes 18 45.0
No 14 35.0
No change 8 20.0
Total 40 100.0
Since yaks need large area of grazing land, it is important to have a sufficient pasture for their survival and productivity. The yak herders of Haa moves to Tsamdros situated on the border for the summer months and shares Tsamdros with 3 hh’s on average. During the winter months, they descend to lower altitude near their permanent homes. Their winter pastures are shared by the cattle, mainly the Thanors that are kept during the summer months (Northue) and horses. Pasture land deterioration is also threatening the yak husbandry due to shortage of fodder in winter (Behnke, 2003).
3. Government Policies and Regulation
From the YFH, 15% of the respondents stated the government policies hinders their traditional management system and that the government policies are not at all effective for yak herders. This was due to strong policies for protection of environment and declaration of the grazing lands as strict nature reserve, restricting the controlled burning of pasturelands for the better regeneration of the grass. The issue was not prominent till 2010 until JKSNR came into functional. Since summer grazing lands near border area was not easily reached by the people, herders carried out controlled burning for the regeneration of the grasses and control the growth of invasive bushes.
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Figure : Respondents perception on level of effectiveness of government policies
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Although there were no conflicts due to declaration of the pastureland as state property, it clashes with traditional management systems of yak rearing. The issue of insufficient pasture lands also intensified after they were declared as the state property and, to some extent, converted into community forests in many parts of the country (Wangdi, 2012). However such issue is not prominent amongst the yak herders of Haa. Of the total respondents, 60% of the respondents did not encounter any conflicts due to declaration of pasture land as state property.
The result shows that 20% of the respondents agreed on government policies supporting yak herding in the area instead of infringing their rights. Policies such as targeted highland development and declaration of grazing lands as strict nature reserve reduced the number of theft cases of the yaks and losing of animal to stray dogs.
Gid alone caused 114 deaths in 2014 from the 20 YFH interviewed and contributes to 72.1% of the total death cases (Figure 6). As stated by Gyamtsho (1996), gid was common cause of yak mortality in country that kills livestock when they are very weak in spring. Herders also loses yaks to Predators such as wild dogs, fox and other predators which accounts for 11% (n=17) of deaths in 2014. According to JKSNR, the stray dogs who accompany Army patrols stay back at the herders’ camps and attack yaks.
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| Figure 6 : Causes of yak mortality in the study area |
5. Geographical and Boarder Issues
The conflict with the herders of TAR started since 2000. Number of hhs sharing pasture with herders across the border and involvement in conflict were correlated at r (38) = .50, p = .00 and 90.4% of respondents sharing pasture with TAR were involved in the conflict. The result also shows that YFAH were involved higher in conflict with the herders across the border. Yak herders of Haa share pasture land with TAR yak herders during the summer months and those who share pasture with the TAR are mainly the yak herders of Bjee Gewog in four tsamdros (Annexure 2) falling within the critical international border namely Shaktoe, Jamana, Shakmey and Phundeygang.
Gyeltshen et al. (2010) mentioned that border conflicts of yak herders in Haa Dzongkhag was due to trans-boundary grazing pressure from TAR in the summer grazing areas. The herders of TAR did not allow Bhutanese herders to follow the traditional grazing rights and collect firewood. Further, Bhutanese herders are not allowed to replace or graze in the Tsamdros of those who abandoned yak herding. The herders of TAR also demand for the Threl (tax) ranging from one piece of chilli to amounts in cash.
The herders encountering conflicts with TAR herders and plans to abandon yak herding was strongly correlated at r (40) =0.8, p=0.05 (Table). Respondents stated the conflict with TAR herders as main reason for leaving yak farming in the recent years.Table : Correlation between conflicts with TAR herders and plans abandon yak herding
Encountered conflict with TAR herders Plans to abandon yak herding
Encountered conflict 1 0.8
with TAR herders
Plans to abandon yak herding 40 1
6. Agriculture and Related Activities
The average land holding of respondents was 3.7 acres per hh and mean land holding for YFAH was 3.25 acres with minimum of 2 acres and maximum of 5 acres (Table 5). For the YFH, average land holding per hh was 2.9 acres with minimum of 1 acre and maximum of 6 acres. However, no significant difference was found in cultivated land holdings of YFH (M=2.9, SD=1.4) and YFAH (M=2.3, SD=.9) conditions; t (38) = -0.8, p= .9
Table : Trend in cultivated agriculture land for YFH and YFAH
cultivated land in the past cultivated land at present
Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean
Non yak herding 1.00 7.00 3.55 2.00 5.00 3.25
Yak herding 2.00 5.00 3.70 1.00 6.00 2.93
However, the mean annual income generated from agricultural activities including horticulture in 2014 was Nu.17,300 and 11,075 respectively for the YFH and YFAH with no significant differences. This shows that agriculture was another major source of income for both YFH and YFAH.
7. Other Sources of livelihood and Income generation
Only 30% of the total respondents for YFH involve themselves in off-farm activities but all the respondents of YFAH involve in at least one off farm activities. The mean income generated from the off farm activities was Nu.4, 125 for the YFH and Nu.149, 210 for the YFAH.
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| figure: Sources of livelihood and Income generation |
The main source of income for YFAH is business which accounts for 40% of the total hh and on average each hh generates Nu.268,750 annually from business activities excluding the sales of agricultural commodities that they produce from their own land. Respondents also depends on hired vehicles-15%, carpentry and masonry-15% and labour-20% for the YFAH. However, only 15% YFH respondents engage themselves in hired vehicle services, 5% in carpentry and masonry and 15% works as labour. The result also signifies that the YFH doesn’t depend much on off farm activities since 65% of the respondents doesn’t do any of the off farm activities and depend mostly on yak farming.
Due to fascinating spiritual traditions and societal norms, consumption of meat is limited in Bhutan at just about 3 kg per capita (Chophel et al., 2012) and is further strengthened by the religious initiations by His Holiness, the Je-Khenpo. Of the total respondents, 60% of them agreed that religious believes discouraged them from taking yak farming whose main source of income is from slaughtering of the yaks fetching them 30,000-35,000 per yak. On an average, each hh slaughters 2 yaks annually to meet their hh expenses mainly for the Loche and education of their children.
Haaps still follow the customary celebration of Boyak festival or Soelkha every year to pay homage to the prominent local deity- Ap Chhundu. Before 2013, two yaks were slaughtered for the festival from the Poennor herd. However, the slaughtering of yaks has now stopped for this festival following the kasho of His Holiness, the 70th Je-Khenpo
Although yak herding is perceived as economically less attractive (Department of Livestock, 2009b), 55% of the total respondents feel that yak herding is a profitable job, of which 13 were YFH. Result also shows that 35% of the respondents were not satisfied with the income generated from the yak herding. Of 35% who mentioned that yak herding as not profitable job, 50% of them had left yak herding. Those who percieves that yak farming has less ability to generate income for the family has left yak herding in the recent years to find for other alternatives. The result also shows that average annual income from the yak herding was Nu. 80,500 (Table).
Table : Annual income and expenditure on yak herding
Expenditure on yak herding (Nu.) Income generated (Nu.)
Mean 46,000 80,500
Minimum 15,000 25,000
Maximum 90,000 20,0000
Cost Benefit of Yak Herding
A. Cost
1.1 Variable costs Cost in Nu.
Feed costs including oil feeding 20,000
expenditure on food items for herder 25,000
expenditure on non-food items 10,000
Grass and hay including grass cutting 15,000
payment for butcher 1,000
Miscellaneous 5,000
Marketing (daily wage and fodding for sales person) 10,000
Transportation 15,000
Utilities such as churner, storage facilities for milk, tent) 20,000
Hired labour 72,000
Other labour (family/exchange) 7,000
Total variable cost (TVC) 200,000
Fixed costs
Housing/bedding (construction and repair) 7,000
land tax 100
Taxes, interest 1,000
Total fix cost (TFC) 8,100
Total cost=TVC+TFC 208,100
B. Benefit
Products Amount
Milk 3,500
Butter 105,000
Cheese 2,000
Chhugo 150,000
Meat 75,000
Total benefit 335,500
Annual net saving (B-A) 127,400
Conclusion
Yak herding is declining due to the various factors such as labour shortage, disease and predators of yak and trans-boundary issues. Since herders serve as border guards and protects the border areas, it’s necessary for the government to intervene in the situation and uphold the culture of yak farming, especially in critical Tsamdro areas.
Small family size due to increasing number of youths going to educational centers discourage them from taking up yak herding as livelihood. Further, the increase in other sources of income such as agricultural commercialization and off-farm activities are taking over the yak herding in the Dzongkhag. Although herders receive animal health care from the extension centers, the number of Gid affected animals are still high in the Dzongkhag.
The yak herding in Haa dzongkhag can be viewed as profitable job although it involves hardships for the herders. With annual net saving of Nu.127,400, it is much better than many of the other activities. However during the summer months their only market for the yak and its products is markets across the border. This may however involve risk and un-certainties due to boundary demarcation conflicts with Chinese government. Formation of herders group or co-operative is expected to solve this issue of market constraints. However, herders cannot transport their limited products time to time to the markets of western Bhutan and it is also not feasible for the collectors to visit all the herder camps. If concerned agencies could establish a collection point, a central location with storage facilities, it would help herders maintain the quality of their products. It can be further strengthened through the formation of co-operatives which will monitor and raise the issues concerning the yak herders to the policy making.
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